Operant Conditioning

I have done some present research on the topic of snake training, and "Operant Conditioning" and I believe this system should work for snake training too, as it works with most animals, including humans.

Learning Theory and Learning Theory

"Learning Theory" is a discipline of psychology that attempts to explain how an organism learns. It consists of many different theories of learning, including instincts, social facilitation, observation, formal teaching, memory, mimicry, and classical and operant conditioning. It is these last two that are of most interest to animal trainers.

Why should animal trainers be bothered with learning the theory behind how their animals learn? Many excellent trainers have no formal schooling or organized understanding of how their training is effective or how their charges work. But training is both an art and a science. More and more trainers - pet owners, show competitors, horseback riders, show-business trainers, zookeepers, aquarium trainers and more - are finding that an understanding of learning theory helps them understand their animals' behaviors better, and plan their training accordingly. So trainers are learning the theory of learning theory!

Classical or "Pavlovian" Conditioning

Theory

Classical Conditioning is the type of learning made famous by Pavlov's experiments with dogs. The gist of the experiment is this: Pavlov presented dogs with food, and measured their salivary response (how much they drooled). Then he began ringing a bell just before presenting the food. At first, the dogs did not begin salivating until the food was presented. After a while, however, the dogs began to salivate when the sound of the bell was presented. They learned to associate the sound of the bell with the presentation of the food. As far as their immediate physiological responses were concerned, the sound of the bell became equivalent to the presentation of the food.

Classical conditioning is used by trainers for two purposes: To condition (train) autonomic responses, such as the drooling, producing adrenaline, or reducing adrenaline (calming) without using the stimuli that would naturally create such a response; and, to create an association between a stimulus that normally would not have any effect on the animal and a stimulus that would.

Stimuli that animals react to without training are called primary or unconditioned stimuli (US). They include food, pain, and other "hardwired" or "instinctive" stimuli. Animals do not have to learn to react to an electric shock, for example. Pavlov's dogs did not need to learn about food.

Stimuli that animals react to only after learning about them are called secondary or conditioned stimuli (CS). These are stimuli that have been associated with a primary stimulus. In Pavlov's experiment, the sound of the bell meant nothing to the dogs at first. After its sound was associated with the presentation of food, it became a conditioned stimulus. If a warning buzzer is associated with the shock, the animals will learn to fear it.

Secondary stimuli are things that the trainee has to learn to like or dislike. Examples include school grades and money. A slip of paper with an "A" or an "F" written on it has no meaning to a person who has never learned the meaning of the grade. Yet students work hard to gain "A's" and avoid "F's". A coin or piece of paper money has no meaning to a person who doesn't use that sort of system. Yet people have been known to work hard to gain this secondary reinforcer.

Application

Classical conditioning is very important to animal trainers, because it is difficult to supply an animal with one of the things it naturally likes (or dislikes) in time for it to be an important consequence of the behavior. In other words, it's hard to toss a fish to a dolphin while it's in the middle of a jump or finding a piece of equipment on the ocean floor a hundred meters below. So trainers will associate something that's easier to "deliver" with something the animal wants through classical conditioning. Some trainers call this a bridge (because it bridges the time between when the animal performs a desired behavior and when it gets its reward). Marine mammal trainers use a whistle. Many other trainers use a clicker, a cricket-like box with a metal tongue that makes a click-click sound when you press it.

You can classically condition a clicker by clicking it and delivering some desirable treat, many times in a row. Simply click the clicker, pause a moment, and give the dog (or other animal) the treat. After you've done this a few times, you may see the animal visibly startle, look towards the treat, or look to you. This indicates that she's starting to form the association. Some clicker trainers call this "charging up the clicker". It's also called "creating a conditioned reinforcer". The click sound becomes a signal for an upcoming reinforcement. As a shorthand, some clicker trainers will say that the click = the treat.

Operant Conditioning

Classical conditioning forms an association between two stimuli. Operant conditioning forms an association between a behavior and a consequence. (It is also called response-stimulus or RS conditioning because it forms an association between the animal's response [behavior] and the stimulus that follows [consequence])

Four Possible Consequences

There are four possible consequences to any behavior. They are:

Something Good can start or be presented;

Something Good can end or be taken away;

Something Bad can start or be presented;

Something Bad can end or be taken away.

Consequences have to be immediate, or clearly linked to the behavior. With verbal humans, we can explain the connection between the consequence and the behavior, even if they are separated in time. For example, you might tell a friend that you'll buy dinner for them since they helped you move, or a parent might explain that the child can't go to summer camp because of her bad grades. With very young children, humans who don't have verbal skills, and animals, you can't explain the connection between the consequence and the behavior. For the animal, the consequence has to be immediate. The way to work around this is to use a bridge (see above).

Technical Terms

The technical term for "an event started" or "an item presented" is positive, since it's something that's added to the animal's environment.

The technical term for "an event ended" or "an item taken away" is negative, since it's something that's subtracted from the animal's environment.

Anything that increases a behavior - makes it occur more frequently, makes it stronger, or makes it more likely to occur - is termed a reinforcer. Often, an animal (or person) will perceive "starting Something Good" or "ending Something Bad" as something worth pursuing, and they will repeat the behaviors that seem to cause these consequences. These consequences will increase the behaviors that lead to them, so they are reinforcers. These are consequences the animal will work to attain, so they strengthen the behavior.

Anything that decreases a behavior - makes it occur less frequently, makes it weaker, or makes it less likely to occur - is termed a punisher. Often, an animal (or person) will perceive "ending Something Good" or "starting Something Bad" as something worth avoiding, and they will not repeat the behaviors that seem to cause these consequences. These consequences will decrease the behaviors that lead to them, so they are punishers.

Applying these terms to the Four Possible Consequences, you get:

Something Good can start or be presented, so behavior increases = Positive Reinforcement (R+)

Something Good can end or be taken away, so behavior decreases = Negative Punishment (P-)

Something Bad can start or be presented, so behavior decreases = Positive Punishment (P+)

Something Bad can end or be taken away, so behavior increases = Negative Reinforcement (R-)

Or:

Reinforcement

(behavior increases)

Punishment

(behavior decreases)

Positive

(something added)

Positive Reinforcement:

Something added increases behavior

Positive Punishment

Something added decreases behavior

Negative

(something removed)

Negative Reinforcement

Something removed increases behavior

Negative Punishment

Something removed decreases behavior

Remember that these definitions are based on their actual effect on the behavior in question: they must reduce or strengthen the behavior to be considered a consequence and be defined as a punishment or reinforcement. Pleasures meant as rewards but that do not strengthen a behavior are indulgences, not reinforcement; aversive meant as a behavior weakener but which do not weaken a behavior are abuse, not punishment.

Snake Handling

How snakes are handled will depend upon the kind of snake and its individual temperament. Some snakes can be lifted by hand from the outset with no display of temper at all. Some may be irascible when first encountered but will quiet as they become used to routines. Others may bite persistently and be so unpleasant that they must be moved with a snake hook or a clamp stick.

Traditionally snakes have been placed in three categories: harmless (non-venomous), rear-fanged (mildly-venomous) and front-fanged (venomous). While these designations may seem definitive, they can, in fact, be very misleading. It is now known that among the so-called harmless snakes are some species that produce toxic saliva. Human fatalities have been attributed, for example, to bites from some relatives of the garter and water snakes. Additionally, many non-venomous species are powerful constrictors.

A few of these are large enough to be life threatening to humans.

Among the ranks of the "mildly-venomous" rear-fanged snakes, there are also a few species that have caused human fatalities. The bites of others have caused massive swelling and tissue destruction. The venomous species – vipers, cobra allies and sea snakes – are aptly designated and a bite should be assiduously avoided.

With all of this potential for danger, how does one go about handling a captive snake? Simply put, the answer is carefully. Since snakes usually advertise their intent with a display of body language (coiling, flattening, drawing back into an "S" to facilitate a strike), it will behoove you to learn their habits, their silent language (as a species and as an individual) and to tailor your methods of approach and handling safely.

Unlike many other reptiles and amphibians that resist owner familiarity, many snakes can be safely and frequently handled if this is done gently. If you are new to the snake-keeping hobby, discuss the habits of the species you are keeping with other hobbyists and with employees in the dealerships that offer them. Read as much as you can about the species that most interest you. Here are some suggestions that may help:

· Be sure the snake is aware that you are present. Don't surprise it.

· Handle the snake when it is awake, but during the time of day that it is most lethargic.

· Always move slowly, and, if possible, approach from the side rather than from above.

· If the snake recoils into a striking "S," stop temporarily or use a hook or clamp stick.

· Use gloves when handling non-venomous snakes that are persistently "snappy."

· If it is necessary to handle a snake that has eaten recently or is preparing to shed its skin, do so very gently, supporting the snake as fully as possible.

· Never pin a snake or lift it by its neck. The cervical vertebrae are delicate and, if damaged, the snake is apt to be permanently disabled.

· When lifting a large or heavy bodied snake, slide your hand or a hook under its body about a third of the way back, begin lifting it, then support it appropriately just posterior to mid-body. Slender snakes are not quite as badly in need of posterior support, but it sure can't hurt.

Snakes That Are Easily Handled

The more laid back species of the truly non-toxic types that attain only moderate sizes are the most easily handled. Among these are most species of the eastern king snake, many of the American rat snakes and small- to medium-sized boas and pythons.

Although some of these snakes may initially be feisty, they soon become accustomed to handling. Those that show reluctance at allowing themselves to be lifted by hand will generally be entirely tractable if they are first lifted with a hook then placed in your free hand.

Some snakes, such as the milk snake, may not bite all of the time, but may squirm, forcefully wriggle and smear feces on their captor. Hold these carefully but tightly with one hand and try to control the wriggling end with your free hand.

Snakes That Aren't Easily Handled

Other non-venomous species, such as racers and whip snakes, some of the Asiatic rat snakes and a few slender pythons, such as the water and Mack lot’s pythons, may remain untrustworthy throughout their lives.

Many of these snakes do not "hook" well (repeatedly sliding off of the hook rather than balancing quietly on it) and may repeatedly bite the hand that restrains them. Wear a glove, but take care that the snakes do not break teeth off in the glove. Broken teeth may lead to infectious mouth rot, an insidious and potentially fatal disease.

The Constrictors

Several giant constricting snakes are common in the pet trade. These are the green anacondas, common boas, Burmese pythons, reticulated pythons and African rock pythons. Except for the boa, which seldom exceeds 10 or 11 feet in length, all of these species have the potential for attaining or exceeding 15 feet long. Most of these are purchased when they are two feet or less in length, and over time most become quite tame. Accustomed to caring for them regularly, their owners tend to forget that these top-of-the-line predators lack a great deal of reasoning power, and when adult can, in a split second, become a lethal adversary.

Besides constricting, these snakes can also bite strongly. We do not consider any of these but the boa suitable pet trade species, and it only under certain specific conditions. Because of the tremendous constricting power and lethal potential of these snakes, specimens of eight or more feet in length should only be cared for when two or more people are present. Children are at even more of a disadvantage than adults. Unless continuously supervised, they should never be allowed near a giant snake that is more than four or five feet in length. They should always be kept away from those more than eight feet long.

To constrict most effectively, a snake must be affixed at both ends. It holds its prey in its mouth, anchors its tail to a limb of the victim or a nearby projection, and the squeezing ensues. A constricting snake does not break bones. It merely tightens its coils with each exhalation of the victim until the prey is no longer able to breathe. Suffocation quickly follows.

If grasped by any constricting snake, be it 12 inches or 12 feet long, begin your escape efforts at the snake's tail. Grasping the tail firmly, begin unwinding the snake. Expect to need help if the snake is eight feet or greater in length. They are immensely strong reptiles. When finally getting to the mouth, disengage the teeth as gently as possible (usually not your ultimate concern if you're the one being constricted and the snake is large!) Again, we admonish - no matter how tame the snake - if it is eight feet or greater in length, have at least one buddy with you when working with the reptile.

Venomous Snakes

Rear-fanged (ectoglyphic) and venomous snakes of many kinds are readily available in the American pet trade. Although many seem reluctant to bite, discretion should always be used when handling rear-fanged snakes. A full bite from any large ectoglyphic snake should be cause for concern. Always use a snake hook or clamp stick to move these animals, and do so when the species is least active and most approachable. They should be moved only to clean their cages. The snake is lifted on the hook or clamp and placed in a safely covered container while its cage is worked on. The

snake is not pinned and manually grasped. To do this is to virtually ask to be bitten!

The keeping of venomous snakes is illegal in some communities. If you have decided to keep a venomous species, know the closest sources of antivenin and the most knowledgeable doctors. Always use a snake hook or clamp stick to move these animals, and do so when the species is least active and most approachable.

Basic Information on Choosing and, Caring for Your' Pet Snake.

Basic Information on All Snakes:

Housing:  

A secure cage is vitally important - king snakes are notorious for testing their enclosures and escaping from the smallest of spaces. Any enclosure requires a secure, latched top, and while it may be more expensive to set up a cage like this it will be worth it. Keep in mind that snakes can get through spaces that are so small it doesn't seem possible. Placing plastic tubing (like aquarium air line tubing) between the rim of the tank and the lid may also help prevent escapes.

Substrate:  

For a substrate in the tank, a variety of materials can be used. For new snakes, paper towels or butcher paper are ideal to facilitate cleaning allow monitoring of feces until certain the snake is free of parasites. Various substrates that can be used include indoor-outdoor carpeting, reptile bark, mulch, or aspen shavings (never use cedar, redwood or pine). If shavings are used, it is important to make sure it isn't ingested with the snake's food. Indoor-outdoor carpeting (e.g. Astroturf) is nice in that you can have two or more pieces ready cut for the cage, and can just remove the dirty flooring, replace it with a clean one (then clean the soiled piece for the next time the cage needs cleaning). Whatever is used, cleanliness is very important so choose something that you will be able to clean as often as necessary. The soiled pieces can be soaked in a solution of one gallon of water with 2 tablespoons of bleach, rinsed well, dried and then used again.

Temperature and Humidity: 

As with other reptiles, providing the appropriate heat gradients is of utmost importance to the health and well being of your snake. Generally, milk and king snakes need a gradient of about 76-86 F (24-30C) in their cage during the day, with a drop to about 70-74 F (21-23 C) at night (there may be more exact temperatures for different species). The gradient should be horizontal as well as vertical, and hides should be provided at least at each end of the gradient.

Most owners prefer under tank heaters (place under half the tank) to provide the heat. Under no circumstances should hot rocks be used. If overhead heating used, radiant heat sources (e.g. ceramic elements, available at pet stores) are preferred to incandescent bulbs especially for nocturnal species.

For humidity, providing a shallow dish of water in the cage should be sufficient. Since snakes will often defecate in the water it should be cleaned out daily. King and milk snakes do not need high humidity levels - 40-60% is sufficient, although sometimes during shedding they may benefit from added humidity. If your snake is having a hard time with a shed, try misting the cage lightly, or provide a humidity box (take a covered plastic container, cut a hole in the lid just large enough for the snake to climb in, and line with moistened sphagnum moss).

Handling:

After giving a new snake a couple of days to settle in, you can start handling your snake. Be gentle and persistent, with daily short sessions at first to build trust. At first the snake will probably try to get away, and may even excrete a musky scent from its anal glands (smelly but not harmful). It shouldn't take too long for the snake to get comfortable and settle on your hand/arm. Remember these snakes are constrictors so they may try to wrap themselves around your arm (also not dangerous) - unwrap them from the tail end (their head end tends to be stronger).

Hide:

Hiding spots should be provided - a hide box (any closed in container like a cardboard box will do) should be provided that is just large enough for the snake to curl up in (if it is too large the snake will not feel as secure). Pieced of bark can also provide hiding spots if on a substrate that allows them to burrow under them. Ideally, a hiding place should be available in both the cooler and warmer ends of the enclosure. A branch should also be provided for climbing.

Water:

A water dish will also be necessary, and the water should be kept meticulously clean. Snakes often defecate in their water, in which case it should be immediately cleaned. A heavy dish several inches in diameter makes a good water source. You may find you snake soaking in the dish, particularly before a shed.

Feeding:

As a general rule, feed the snake the size of mouse that is roughly equal to the width of the snake at its widest part (excluding the head). Young snakes should be fed twice a week. Regurgitation is relatively common in these snakes, and can result from handling them too soon after a meal. Other causes can be food that is too large, an enclosure that is too cool, or illness. If regurgitation is recurring after correcting the environmental and feeding causes, check with a vet. They will eat, and should only be fed, killed prey. A snake that is not hungry when the live prey is introduced into the enclosure often finds itself becoming the meal, especially if the prey is a rat. To economize, buy in bulk. Contact your local herpetology society; many member’s breed mice and rats, and most will pre-kill them for you. Remove the prey item from the freezer and allow defrosting at room temperature. When defrosted, use forceps or tongs to pick up the rodent by the tail, and place it in the tank. Once you get to know your snake, you can hold the prey in front of the snake for the snake to strike at. Make sure you wash your hands after handling prey, or other animals, before putting your hand in the snake's enclosure. Smell overrides all other senses when it comes to food; even if your hand does not look remotely rodent-like, it smells like one, ergo it must be one.

Snake Bite:

There is generally two types of bites: a strike, and a feeding bite. A strike is a warning that you have exceeded the bounds of what the snake will tolerate. It will shoot out, mouth open, and then retract just as quickly, leaving you with a series of teeth marks. A feeding bite is just that: they think they have prey, and are not going to let go; the more you move around, the more they try to "kill" your hand. The easiest and fastest way to disengage a snake's mouth from your body with grain (not rubbing) alcohol; in a school setting, you can use Listerine or, if none is available, isopropyl (rubbing) alcohol. The latter can be toxic, so you must make sure that the snake's mouth is not flooded with it. Always tilt the snake's head downwards so that the fluid does not run up into its nose; from there it can get into its respiratory tract, causing infections. Wash bites thoroughly with soap and water. Apply povidone-iodine (Beta dine) or hydrogen peroxide, and let dry. Then apply a topical broad-spectrum antibiotic ointment. Do not bandage. It should be noted that a snake will always signal when it is going to strike or bite; you just need to learn new body language. Once you see the snake stiffen and slowly retract, head held slightly above the ground or body, be alert and ready to more. Snakebites do not particularly hurt, especially with a snake the size of a gopher. It is the atavistic fear of the bite that makes the experience frightening.

Choosing a Snake:

Milk and king snakes breed quite readily in captivity, so it should be relatively easy to find a captive bred specimen.

Things to look for in a healthy snake (any kind of snake):

• Firm rounded body

• Clear eyes (may be a little cloudy if about to shed), no discharge from eyes

• No signs of mites (check especially around head/eyes, look for dusty specks on body, check hands after handling snake)

• No open mouth breathing or gasping for breath

• Inside of mouth uniformly pink (reddened areas or cheesy looking matter may indicate mouth rot)

• Shiny smooth skin with no scabs or sores

• Clean vent with no swelling in area

• Should move smoothly with no tremors

A new snake may not be all that tame, but should settle down fairly well with gentle handling. A snake that is distressed will wave its body in the air trying to escape. Most king and milk snakes will settle down after a bit and wrap itself gently around your hands.

King Snake

Eat: King snakes are fed mice or baby rats. Adults can be fed adult mice small rats once or twice a week. Start with once a week, and if the snake is too lean, body not rounded, can see ribs or back bone, feed twice a week. Many king and milk snakes tend eat less in the fall and winter.

Environment: King snakes do not need high humidity levels - 40-60% is sufficient, although sometimes during shedding they may benefit from added humidity.

Physical characteristics:

Size: These snakes do reach fairly large sizes, with some specimens reaching 6-7 feet in length.

Venomous: Some subspecies utilize a natural defense of mimicking the appearance of the venomous coral snakes, with bands of red, black and yellow. Coral snakes have yellow bands touching the red bands, while the king and milk snakes have black touching the red bands. But they are not venomous.

Life Length: They are also pretty long lived, with ages of 15-20 years reached.

Caring For Your Snake: King snakes should be kept one to cage/enclosure. These snakes will not hesitate to make a meal out of a cage mate. While hatchlings can be started out in a small cage (e.g. 10 gallon tank), medium sized snakes need a 20 gallon tank and full grown snakes will need an even larger enclosure, such as a 60 gallon tank. King and milk snakes are quite active and need the room. Giving them room to stretch out is also thought to reduce the incidence of respiratory infections.

Corn Snake

Corn snakes make an excellent choice as a pet snake. Pet corn snakes are generally docile, relatively easy to care for, and do not get too large. They are excellent escape artists, however, so care must be taken when planning their housing.

Corn snakes do make a good choice for beginners since they are easy to handle and care for. However, they are also favorites with experienced keepers due to the vast array of beautiful colors and patterns selective breeding has produced.

Eat: Corn snakes should be fed pre-killed mice or small rats (small rats are only suitable for larger corn snakes). Hatchlings are started out on pinkie mice for feedings and the size of the prey is increased as the snake grows. The prey item can be as wide or a little wider than the snakes’ head. Young growing snakes should be fed a couple of times a week, while adults need only be fed one appropriately sized prey item every week or 10 days.

Environment: Corn snakes are native to the southeastern United States and are mainly land dwelling. They are active mainly at night or at dusk and dawn.

Physical Characteristics:

Size: 3-5 feet (occasionally up to 6 feet)

Venomous: Non-venomous constrictors. 

Life Length: Around 15-20 years, sometimes longer.

Caring For Your Snake: corn snakes do not have elaborate housing needs, but must be in an escape-proof enclosure. Picking a solid cage is a necessity for proper corn snake care. A 20-gallon long (i.e. longer, shallower version) makes a good-sized cage for a corn snake. The most important part is to get a secure fitting lid that can be clamped down. Corn snakes will push at the lid with their noses looking for weaknesses so the fit of the lid is very important.

Ball Python

Eat: Ball pythons can be fed exclusively mice or small to medium sized rats (as appropriate for the size of the snake), and only need to be fed every week or two. Young snakes should be fed fuzzy mice every 5-7 days; older snakes should be fed increasingly larger prey and can go a little longer (i.e. 10 - 14 days). Use pre-killed prey as live mice can injure a snake - dangling the prey in front of the snake with forceps usually gets the snake interested.

Moving the snake out of its cage into a separate enclosure for feeding is a good idea and will help in the taming process. The snake will associate eating with the other enclosure, and is less likely to confuse your hand for prey when you put your hand into the cage. This will make it easier to reach into the cage to get the ball python out for handling.

Even captive bred ball pythons sometimes refuse to eat, fasting for a couple of months. As long as body weight and condition are maintained, this is not problematic. If your snake stops eating, carefully examine the husbandry, handling, health, and environment of the snake to make sure stress isn't the culprit. Consult a knowledgeable vet or experienced keeper for help if the fast is prolonged or causing weight loss. If necessary, some tricks to entice a python to eat include dipping the prey in chicken broth, trying different colors of mice, exposing the brain of the prey before feeding it, feeding at night, covering the cage with towels after offering a mouse. You may even want to try feeding a hamster or gerbil, although this may make your snake more likely to refuse mice if it develops a preference for hamsters and gerbils.

Environment: Provide sturdy branches and a dark hiding place. 80 - 85 F (27 - 29 C) during the day, with a basking spot of around 90 F (32 C). Nighttime temperatures can fall to around 75 F (23 -24 C) as long as an area of 80 F is maintained. Ball Pythons are nocturnal, so have no special lighting requirements. However, they are nocturnal, so incandescent bulbs should not be used at night (to preserve the light/dark cycle the snake needs) - instead use red, blue or black bulbs. Provide a dish large enough for the snake to soak in. Soaking is especially important during sheds. Some owners like to provide a covered dish (e.g. plastic storage container) with a hole in the lid, to provide security for the snake so it will soak longer if necessary. Another alternative is to provide a humidity retreat, which similarly uses a covered container with an access hole lined with damp sphagnum moss to provide the moisture (a water dish is still provided outside the retreat).

Physical Characteristics:

Size: maximum size of 3-5 feet

Venomous: Non-venomous constrictor.

Life Length: They can live for a long time with proper care - up to about 50 years, although 20-30 appears to be more typical.

Caring For your Snake: If you already have a constricting snake at home, any new python (or boa) should be quarantined due to the risk of inclusion body disease. Experts vary on the length of quarantine, but 3-6 months is not extreme. In addition, a vet check is in order, especially for internal (take a recent stool sample) and external parasites.

Gopher Snake

Eat: An active gopher snake will happily eat every 10 days. They will eat, and should only be fed, killed prey. For a change of pace, offer a quail egg. If the snake eats it, offer it one every couple of weeks in addition to its regular feeding.

Environment: If the snake is going to be handled and allowed out into an exercise/basking area for most of the day, it can be housed in a 10-gallon tank. Otherwise, it must be housed in at least a 20-gallon tank. The tank must have a secured top; a determined snake can push against screen or glass till it finds an opening big enough for its head; where its head goes, so goes its body. A hide box must be provided. In the wild, gophers spend a lot of time in rocky fissures, under fallen trees, or in burrows. A gopher who cannot hide away when he wants to will become stressed and may become ill. If you obtain a tall 20 gal tank, place some clean branches inside for climbing. Gopher snakes will often burrow under the chips or soil if it is deep enough; in this case, you will not have to provide a hide box. Gopher snakes have the same temperature requirements as corn snakes. A heating pad (purchased at the drug store) set at medium or low (depending upon the ambient air temperature) is placed under one-half of the tank; this leaves one side cooler, so that the snake can regulate its body temperature as needed. To maintain health, the snake must be kept at 75-85 F, the higher temperature being necessary to digest its food. Temperatures can fall to the lower range at night.

Physical Characteristics:

Size: Average 4.5-6 feet.

Venomous: A gopher snake, although non-poisonous, will strike like a rattler to fend off danger.

Life Length: Usually 10-20 years

Caring for your Snake: Gophers do not wrap around your arm like pythons or kings. They tend to pick a direction and go for it. Though they are relatively small in body mass, they are quite strong. Always support the body and give free rein to the head. If the head starts going somewhere you don't want it to go, gently guide it into another direction. Many snakes are nervous when introduced into a new situation with new people. Give them a couple of days to settle down before letting new people handle them.